What is pH Balanced Skin Care?

Beyond the pH Balance:
What is pH Balanced Skin Care?

The market is flooded with products claiming to be pH-balanced, from soaps and cleansers, to shampoos, deodorants, moisturizers, and even makeup. These products promise to restore the skin's natural pH balance, implying that they are an absolute necessity for skin health and a "youthful" appearance.

As the demand for natural and organic personal care products grows, a marketing battle is brewing between commercial and natural companies over pH-balanced skin care. There is literally a War on Natural Soap!

For example, commercial skin care companies argue that natural soaps, which tend to be more alkaline, are harmful to the skin and that their "pH-balanced cleansers" are a better choice.

However, it is worth questioning whether pH-balanced products formulated with synthetic detergents, surfactants, preservatives, and other synthetic chemicals are truly better for the health of our skin.

We often receive e-mails asking, "Are Your Natural Soaps & Shampoos pH Balanced?"

To be honest, it is tough question for me to answer. I understand why people ask, but I disagree with the idea that pH-balanced synthetic cleansers are the only way to achieve good skin health.

Let me be clear: I am not arguing against the importance of a healthy acid mantle. I know it is vitally important. My concern lies in the way in which the skin care industry has manipulated the research to fit its own agenda while ignoring common sense along the way.

As I reviewed the original research studies, I found that much of the information circulating the internet has been taken out of context from studies done on unique populations, such as premature babies, the elderly, the acutely or chronically ill, and those with wounds or compromised skin conditions or diseases. There is a surprising lack of good research on healthy individuals.

I know I am going against the grain by advocating for natural soap over pH-balanced syndets. My goal is not to persuade or convince you, but to encourage you to think critically and ask questions. Good skincare is about more than just pH levels.

What Is pH?

In order to understand pH balanced skin care, we need to talk about pH.

Why the lower case “p” and the upper case “H”?  Chemically speaking, the characteristic feature of an acid is its willingness to give up positive Hydrogen ions. The "H" is capitalized because it is the chemical symbol for the element "hydrogen." Some say the lower case “p” represents the word “potential” while others say it stands for "power."

So you can think of the "p" in pH as basically the power of hydrogen in a solution or the potential availability of hydrogen ions in a solution. It measures concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution.

In simpler terms, it measures the acidity or alkalinity of an aqueous solution. 

An aqueous solution is a solution in which something is dissolved in water. A pH measurement only has meaning in an aqueous solution. If there is no water there are no free hydrogens to measure and therefore there is no pH. For example, you cannot measure the pH of things like solid objects.

The pH scale spans from 0 to 14, with distilled water sitting at a neutral 7. Any solution with a pH below 7 is considered acidic, while those above 7 are alkaline (or basic).

Interestingly, the pH levels of our bodily fluids varies greatly, each tailored to its specific function.

For instance, the liquid inside our cells is slightly alkaline and tightly regulated, unaffected by our skin care choices.

In contrast, the stomach contains hydrochloric acid (HCl) with a pH of 1-2, while the liquids of the small intestine have a pH of around 9. Blood pH is slightly alkaline at 7.45, and even seawater has an average pH of 8 to 8.4.

pH and Your Skin: The Acid Mantle

When it comes to skin chemistry it is important to remember that pH is a measurement of hydrogen ions in an aqueous (water-based) solution.

Skin is a solid, not a water-based solution. A common misconception is that your skin, hair, and scalp (simply the skin on your head) have a pH, but they do NOT have a pH of their own.

When people talk about the pH of the skin, they are referring to the pH of a very thin, slightly acidic, moist layer caused by normal secretions from sweat glands and sebaceous (oil) glands, dead skin cells, the breakdown of fatty acids by good bacteria that live on our skin and other skin secretions.

This microenvironment, called the "Acid Mantle," sits on the surface of the top layer (the stratum corneum) of the epidermis of your skin.

It is the pH of this layer that is considered the pH of your skin or hair, not the solid tissue itself. Since the skin and hair are not entirely aqueous, the pH measurement is considered an "apparent pH" as it reflects the pH of the fluid on the surface.

The acid mantle helps keep the skin, scalp, and hair moisturized. The naturally acidic pH allows beneficial bacteria to happily live on our skin while it deters bad bacteria and other microbes that do not like the acidic environment. It also helps neutralize anything mildly alkaline that comes in contact with the skin.

The term "acid mantle," coined in 1928 by two German physicians, has only recently become a giant buzzword in the skincare industry thanks to skin care products that proudly advertise words like "acid mantle repairing formula . . ." on their packaging.

The pH of the acid mantle is not a fixed number, it often varies between 4.5 and 6.5

The pH is different on different parts of your body and is impacted by the unique composition of your sweat and natural skin oil (sebum).

The pH of the skin exhibits a diurnal pattern, meaning it fluctuates throughout the day, typically showing a slightly higher pH in the afternoon compared to the morning, indicating a mild circadian rhythm in skin acidity.

As a matter of fact, there are many external and internal factors that can affect the skin barrier as well as the acidity of the skin surface (the acid mantle) beside skin care products. It would be nearly impossible to list every potential influential factor, but some include:

• time of day
• age (pH increases as we age)
• gender (men's skin tends to be more acidic than women’s skin)
• the composition of sweat (natural skin moisture)
• the composition of sebum (skin oil) production
• different areas on the body have distinct pH levels (moist areas of the body tend to be more alkaline)
• ethnicity
• genetics
• heat & air conditioning (humidity)
• diet - eating habits
• hydration levels
• hormone changes
• medications
• health
• physical activity
• stress
• seasonal changes in temperature
• environmental dirt and pollution
• sun exposure
• inflammatory skin conditions (eczema, rosacea, acne)
• hard water
• cosmetic use

Basically there is no perfect pH measurement for YOUR skin and thus it makes sense that there is no perfect pH measurement needed in a skin care product in order to maintain your own healthy skin. It all depends on how a particular product interacts with your unique skin.

It is also important to remember that our skin is always changing. Our skin is a dynamic organ that constantly renews itself. 

The rate of skin cell turnover is complex, influenced by various factors, and can also vary across different parts of the body. But it is estimated that our skin constantly sloughs way about 30,000 to 40,000 cells every minute! That is nearly 9 pounds per year. 

In a healthy 20 year old adult, the skin renews itself every 28 days as new cells made in the lower layers of the epidermis move to the surface. (I actually had a question about how cell turnover affects the acid mantle, but could not find an answer.)

Brief exposure to slightly alkaline (like handmade soap that you rinse off) or acidic material does not harm the acid mantle. Healthy skin can rebalance the acid mantle in a very short amount of time.

Any skin cleansing agent, even normal tap water (with a pH between 6 and 8.5 depending on the source), influences the acid mantle and thus the surface of the skin.

Our skin is awesome at maintaining its own homeostasis (the ability of our body to regulate and compensate for changes in the environment). Unless you are using harsh cleansers or products that are extremely acidic or alkaline, which can actually damage your skin, the minor pH fluctuations caused by skin cleansers are typically corrected by the natural regulatory mechanisms of the skin and will not cause long-term changes in the natural pH of the skin (acid mantle).

Simply because the pH of your skin is not some perfect number, does not mean that your skin is unhealthy.

What Is pH Balanced Skin?

The skin's natural pH is slightly acidic, thanks to the acid mantle. However, as I mentioned earlier, skin pH can fluctuate and is influenced by numerous factors. So, what is the ideal pH for your skin, considering all these variables?

It is a bit like trying to hit a moving target. With so many factors at play, it seems quite challenging to pinpoint a single, perfect pH value that applies to everyone.

Let us consider a scenario to illustrate the complexity of skin pH. Imagine you and a friend have just finished a strenuous gardening session, and your skin is warm and moist. If you were to measure the pH of the secretions on your skin, you would find that the pH varies significantly depending on the area of the body you are testing.

Now if your friend were to do the same test, they would likely get different pH readings than you. This highlights the unique nature of individual skin chemistry and the challenges of identifying a single, universal "ideal" pH value.

Further research highlights the complexity of skin pH. A June 2013 study published in the International Journal of Dermatology investigated the effect of sports activities on skin physiology including skin surface pH. The study demonstrated that for "all investigated body sites, measured values for skin surface pH increased after sportive activity" which could lead to barrier disfunction likely due to increased sweat production. This study raises an interesting point, are we really expected to avoid sweating?

Another study published in the same journal in April 2013 investigated "Age-related changes in skin barrier function." They tested 150 women between the ages of 18 to 80 and determined that "skin surface pH is significantly increased in menopausal woman."

It is clear that so many factors, including the simple uniqueness of you, can influence the pH of our acid mantle.

Basically we know that the pH level of the acid mantle varies from person to person. We also know that there are many, many factors that influence that pH.

So, for me it quite puzzling to see products that claim to be "pH balanced. I guess the question we should ask is, pH balanced for whom?

Why Do We Care About "Skin pH?

 The skin is often referred to as the body’s first line of defense. It is considered to be a dynamic active organ with a vital barrier function.

For a long time, acid skin pH of the acid mantle was believed to be the most important concept for certain aspects, mainly protection from pathogenic microorganisms. Today however, the view has broadened, and various other aspects have been discovered. (source)

The skin barrier is not a single thing. It is a well organized system designed to hold enough water to maintain skin health. It is comprised of four interdependent layers, the physical, chemical, microbiologic, and immunologic that work together in a complex system to protect the body from infection, environmental damage, and maintain barrier structure and function.

The physical barrier is the outermost layer called the stratum corneum. It is composed of dead skin cells held together by lipids, forming a tight, impermeable barrier. It regulates water loss from the inside out, retains moisture, keeps you hydrated, protects against external factors, blocks the entry of pathogens, and also blocks entry to most topical drugs.

The chemical barrier includes sebum, sweat, and something called antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), secreted by a variety of skin cells, which inhibit the growth of bad bacteria. The "acid mantle" of the skin is considered as a part of the chemical barrier. 

The immune barrier is a complex system that involves a variety of immune cells that recognize and respond to pathogens and other foreign substances and activate an immune response when needed to eliminate threats.

The microbiome, also known as the microflora or microbiota, seems to be the barrier most susceptible to outside forces. 

It is estimated that our skin is home to about 1 trillion beneficial microorganisms (skin flora) which make up a tiny ecosystem called the skin microbiome.

Bacteria are the most common skin microbes, but normal healthy skin will also be home to fungi, viruses, and mites.

Healthy skin has a high microbiome diversity, meaning many different types of microorganisms that live together harmoniously.

Most of these organisms are beneficial to the skin and play an essential role in maintaining the skin's health by helping to protect it from harmful pathogens, regulating inflammation and immune responses, and aiding in the breakdown of sebum and other skin lipids.

While the skin microbiome is similar between different individuals, it is never exactly the same. Different microorganisms live on different areas of your skin depending on many factors, such as skin texture, thickness and humidity. Some microorganisms thrive best in moist areas while others like dry or oily spots. The composition will also differ in areas exposed to light and with age and gender.

Although science is just starting to understand everything the skin microbiome does, we know that it is an essential part of the body’s immune system. Similar to those in our gut, our skin microorganisms have key roles in the protection against infection.

While the normal microorganisms that inhabit our skin live happily in a mildly acidic environment with a pH of around 5.5, disease causing microorganisms, called pathogens, do not.

Therefore the ability of our skin to maintain a healthy microbiome is dependent on an intact acid mantle. The acid mantle along with the microbiome are part of the delicate matrix that makes up a healthy skin barrier.

While there is so much advertising hype about "pH-balanced" skin products, caring for and optimizing a healthy skin barrier involves much more than just achieving some "optimum" skin pH. But that is topic for another blog.

What Types of Products Affect the Acid Mantle?

Unfortunately, just about everything you put on your skin can contribute to the break down of the acid mantle.

Things like water, skin cleansers, lotions, creams, exfoliants, retinol, alpha hydoxy acid (AHA), alcohols, makeup, and the list goes on.

Look at the ingredients on the tube of a real pH-balanced face wash. Do we know the effect that each of these ingredients has on the acid mantle or the microbiome?

While there are many synthetic ingredients in pH-balanced skin care products, let's look at just one, preservatives.

Remember our acid mantle is home to trillions of beneficial bacteria, fungi and viruses.

Now consider the purpose of preservatives which is to discourage the formation of microorganisms like yeast, bacteria, and mold. But what will those preservatives do to all the little critters that make up our natural skin flora?

It makes sense that preservatives can also eliminate the natural microorganisms in the skin microbiome, including the good ones.

According the 2019 article, "Revealing the secret life of skin ‐ with the microbiome you never walk alone," published in the Journal of Cosmetic Science, synthetic chemicals and antimicrobial preservatives do impact the delicate balance of the skin microbiome.

Research also indicates that even if they are natural or used in low concentration, preservatives will disrupt the balance within a healthy skin microbiome, which over time can lead to skin irritation and sensitivities. If a skin care product contains water it contains preservatives.

Skin care products that you leave on your skin made with only simple preservative-free natural oils and butters may be a better alternative for healthy skin care.

Remember the acidity or alkalinity of vegetable oils, plant oils or natural butters cannot be measured using the typical pH scale because they do not contain water, are not water soluble, and there are no free hydrogen ions to measure. 

That being said, there are alternative methods to determine whether an oil is more acidic or basic. Most vegetable oils tend to me mildly acidic. 

What about SKIN CLEANSERS that are used and rinsed off?

“Rinse-off” products are personal care items that only come into contact with the skin for a short time and are then washed off with water, such as soap and shampoo. On the other hand “leave-on” products, like body cream, are intended to remain on the skin.

After bathing or showering with soap your skin begins re-secreting the mantle immediately. Over the years various studies have shown that for those with healthy skin, the acid mantle can be completely restored relatively quickly after cleansing with a mild soap typically within 1-2 hours. Retaining the acid mantel is only problematic in compromised barrier conditions. Journal of Investigative Dermatology (2003); Medicine (2010); Cosmetic Science (2011); International Journal of Cosmetic Science (2011); Journal of Clinical and Aesthetic Dermatology (2015)

The 2015 article "The long-term use of soap does not affect the pH-maintenance mechanism of human skin" published in Skin Research and Technology tested two groups of subjects. One group had used a soap for more than 5 years and the other group had used a mildly acidic syndet cleanser for more than 5 years.

Researchers determined that "cleansing with soap does not affect the basal skin surface pH. Furthermore, the increase in skin pH and the subsequent return of the skin pH following washing was also not different between the two groups. These data suggest that soap cleansing does not affect the pH-maintenance system, and does not stimulate or delay the recovery of the skin surface pH during the washing period in healthy skin."

However, using a highly alkaline or acidic product that remains on the skin can interfere with the skin's natural ability to return to a normal pH and may cause permanent changes in the acid mantle.

Syndets vs Natural Soap?

The concept of pH balance resonates with consumers who are increasingly interested choosing the perfect skincare. In the crowded skin care market, syndet companies can create a perceived benefit that makes their products more appealing and distinct from traditional soaps by emphasizing the importance of pH balance. 

Syndet is a blended word made by combining the words “synthetic” and "detergent." It is the name given to a cleansing bar or liquid made by the binding of synthetic detergents.

A syndet is the name given to a cleansing bar or liquid made with synthetic surfactants (detergents).

To create any type product that foams, lathers and cleans - for hair, body, or even dishes - a surfactant (surface-active agent) is essential.

Surfactants reduce the surface tension of water and bridge the gap between water and greasy dirt, allowing them to bind together and be easily washed away.

Detergents are surfactants. Soap is a natural surfactant, while detergents are synthetic surfactants.

If the cleansing product you are using on your body or hair is labeled "soap-free" it is made using some type of synthetic detergent.

Want to know more, read our blog, "What Are Syndets?" 

My Concerns With pH Balanced Skin Cleansing

The idea that every skin care issue can be blamed on products that are not pH-balanced is a common claim made by many skincare companies. 

Using a product based solely on its pH level does not make sense.

Let's consider a hypothetical example. Imagine creating a skin care product by mixing hydrochloric acid (an acid) and oven cleaner (a base) in just the right amounts to achieve a pH-balanced formula with a pH of 5.5. Would you feel comfortable using that product on your skin?

This example might be extreme, but it illustrates a crucial point, the ingredients used to make a product are far more important than its pH level alone. Any skin or hair care product is only as good as the sum of its ingredients.

An article titled "Role of pH in skin cleansing" published in the International Journal of Cosmetic Science in 2021 discusses research done to "determine whether a skin cleansing product by virtue of its pH being same as “skin pH” is milder to skin."

The researchers concluded that the mildness of any skin cleanser is a function of the way in which the surfactants (natural or synthetic) plus all the other ingredients interact with the skin of an individual. "Therefore, a cleansing product claiming the same pH as that of skin does not guarantee it will benefit the skin."

The pH value alone does not determine whether a product is gentle, harsh, or even effective. The chemical makeup of a product consists of all of the important components, with the pH value being only one of them. Whether a product is gentle or damaging cannot be determined simply by pH values alone.

When you mix your "pH-balanced" cleanser with water, what happens to the pH?

Typically, the pH of tap water (well and city) ranges from 6.5 to 8.5. It is a scientific fact that diluting an acid or base with water affects the pH.

Let's say you buy an "acid mantle repairing" skin cleanser with a magical pH of 5.5 (although companies rarely disclose the pH). When you take a bath or shower the "pH balanced" cleanser now mixes with tap water which has a pH of its own due to dissolved minerals etc. As a result, the pH of your "pH balanced" cleanser changes.

The addition of water can make an acidic product less acidic and an alkaline product less alkaline. Given the substantial amount of water used in bathing and showering compared to the amount of soap, it makes sense that the pH of the water will ultimately influence the overall pH of the cleansing process.

Some argue that the low pH cleanser balances the higher pH of water. While it seems to make sense, it is still a guessing game unless you know the pH of the product, the pH of your water, and the pH of the intended area on the body.

What is the real purpose of any skin cleansing product?

The primary purpose of any skin cleanser, whether it is pH balanced or not, is to remove dirt and grime that is mixed with the natural fatty sebum (oily) on your skin. Research has shown that surfactants, the cleansing agents in skin care products, cannot tell the difference between oily skin debris and normal skin lipids. As a result, even pH-balanced syndets can strip the skin of its natural oils, which are a crucial component of the acid mantle.

This raises an important question. Remembering that the sebum makes up an important component of the acid mantle, removing this fatty layer may make us feel clean, but aren't these fats an important part of our natural acid mantle and thus the natural microbiome of our skin?

The whole premise of pH-balanced skin cleansing is that it will not disrupt the acid mantle. But, decades of research has consistently shown that all skin cleansing agents, including tap water, disrupt the skin's delicate acid mantle. (References "Effects of Soap and Detergents on Skin Surface pH in Infants" Dermatology 1997: "Acid mantle: What we need to know" Indian Journal of Dermatology 2023)

So basically, cleaning our skin, even with plain water, is not a good idea at all. It seems that there is delicate balancing act between good hygiene and protecting the integrity of the skin’s natural barrier.

Perhaps if we new the exact pH of our water and the perfect pH of every part of our unique skin, we could make our own skin cleansers for our body assuming we could determine the exact pH of that skin cleanser. Quite a tall order. 

Of course, manufacturers of bar and liquid syndets are exploiting the pH controversy to their advantage. By emphasizing that the skin is "acid" and their synthetic detergents, foam boosters, and other ingredients are also "acid," they create the illusion that their products are better suited for our skin's acid mantle skin.

On the surface, it seems logical. However, they are  not asking the obvious, common sense questions – perhaps because they already know the answers.

How Do We Test The pH Of Our Soaps & Shampoos?

So how do I answer the question, are your soaps and shampoos pH balanced?

Unlike many soapmakers who approach their craft as an art form, I take a scientific approach to soapmaking. I delve into the chemistry of saponification (the chemical reaction that makes soap), carefully considering the intricacies of the soap-making process. This meticulous approach sets my soaps and shampoos apart, as I prioritize the science behind the craft.

Early lye soaps were often irritating due to the lack of accurate methods for measuring lye concentration. This led to the development of harsh soaps, giving lye soaps a reputation they did not entirely deserve. Early soapmakers often had to make many batches of soap before one was suitable to be used on their family's skin.

While Great Grandma used a raw egg to determine the amount of lye needed, (Read about "The Origin of Soapmaking"), we work with specialized charts, computer programs, and a lot of research and investigation to determine the correct proportions of ingredients to use in the soap-making process. In addition, we have accurate scales that allow us to measure ingredients by a tenth of an ounce. The result is mild and carefully crafted handmade natural soap.

Measuring the pH of solid soap bar is a challenge. If you test the liquid soap batter before pouring it into a mold, the pH is extremely high, showing a deep purple color on pH paper (see the color chart above).

The picture of the four soaps shows a simple pH paper test of different soaps taken after only two weeks of curing. Notice that the soaps test around 7 (green), which is neutral. Some soaps made with fruit juices actually tested even lower.

But here is the catch, we cannot directly measure the pH of solid soap. The pH scale only applies to water-based solutions. In order to test pH I need to add a few drops of water to the bar to wet the surface in which case I am actually testing soapy water, not the soap itself. The water lowers the pH.

So how do we test the pH of our soap and shampoo bars? The answer is simple, we use them!

The most accurate test of a good mild soap is how it feels on your skin. Your body will balance the skin pH on its own. So, listen to your skin and trust it.

We have received numerous testimonials from customers who have experienced dramatic improvements in their skin after switching to our handmade soaps and shampoos. They have replaced their "pH-balanced" synthetic soaps, body washes, and shampoos, and are now free from itching, dry skin, eczema, and other skin and scalp issues. While anecdotal evidence may not be considered scientifically credible, I believe that the real-life experiences of our customers speak volumes.

It is important to remember that . . . All natural soap bars are not created equal!

All handmade soaps are NOT created equal! The quality of a bar of handmade natural soap will vary based on:

• the technique or process used
• ingredients
• additives
• curing time
• the amount of superfatting (adding extra oil)
• the knowledge and experience of the soapmaker

I found so many articles written about the "evils of soap" that began with words like, "Using a harsh bar soap with a high pH . . ." But, what is the "harsh bar soap?

Our soaps and shampoos are allowed to cure for 8 to 10 weeks. We superfat all of our soaps and shampoos at a much higher rate than most soapmakers. Superfatting leaves a portion of unincorporated oils in the finished soap, which ensures that Chagrin Valley natural soaps and shampoo bars have superior moisturizing and emollient qualities. 

These "extra oils" also provide free fatty acids and triglycerides to the soap. After bathing with soap and water, these free fatty acids may help skin recover its natural pH balance faster.

Commercial companies remove the natural glycerin and add synthetic ingredients not found in handmade soap, like chemical preservatives to increase shelf life and synthetic colors or scents. Many also contain free alkali which increases the shelf life and hardness of the soap bars, but also increases the pH and makes them harsh and drying.

Learn More Blog, "The War on Natural Soap"

Conclusion

As I mentioned at the beginning, my goal is not to persuade or convince you, but to encourage you to think critically and ask questions. I hope this blog has accomplished that goal.

I absolutely believe that we need a healthy, intact acid mantle, but the term "pH-balanced" has become a marketing mantra in the personal care industry, perpetuating the notion, on product websites and beauty blogs all over the internet, that skin care products must be precisely calibrated to some perfect pH. However, this oversimplifies the complexity of skin health.

While maintaining an intact acid mantle is crucial, the pH value of skin secretions can fluctuate, and numerous factors contribute to overall skin health. Extreme pH levels can harm the skin, but focusing solely on pH neglects other vital factors.

There is no one-size-fits-all pH measurement for skin care products. What works for one person may not work for another. The pursuit of a single. magical "pH number" overlooks the intricacies of skincare and haircare formulations and the uniqueness each individual (I still want to know pH balanced for whom).

You are unique and so is your skin and hair. How any product interacts with your skin depends on the ingredients that product offers, how it is applied, and your skin type, not the pH alone. Thus it makes sense that:

• there is no perfect pH measurement needed in a skin care product in order to maintain YOUR own healthy skin
• there is no perfect pH measurement that YOUR skin must achieved in order to be healthy

To truly care for your skin, look beyond marketing buzzwords. Understand that the overall formulation, combined with your personal skin and hair type, plays a critical role in product efficacy. That why my skin loves a well-formulated bar of natural soap.

Take a closer look at the ingredients in your pH-balanced facial or body cleanser. Currently, science does not fully understand the long-term effects of all the synthetic chemicals in these products on our skin or our planet.

Personally, I have found that well made natural, superfatted handmade soap that retains its natural glycerin is much gentler and less drying than syndet bars or pH-balanced liquid cleansers. (Yes, I did try some).

Remember, your skin health is also a reflection of your overall well-being. A balanced diet, regular exercise, and good general health are essential for maintaining healthy, radiant skin.

Become an informed consumer, and make choices that nurture your unique skin and hair needs.

If you have chronic skin issue which can lead to a compromised pH, you should consult a dermatologist.

The War on Soap

How We Make Soap At Chagrin Valley

What Are Syndets?

This blog, originally posted in October 2015, was revised in 2021, and revised again in October 2024.